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"Low-Frequency Gravitational Wave Searches
Using Spacecraft Doppler Tracking"

J. W. Armstrong

	Abstract
1	Introduction
2	Notation, Acronyms, and Conventions
3	Gravitational Wave Signal Response
4	Apparatus and Principal Noise Sources
	4.1	Frequency standard noise
	4.2	Plasma scintillation noise
	4.3	Tropospheric scintillation noise
	4.4	Antenna mechanical noise
	4.5	Ground electronics noise
	4.6	Spacecraft transponder noise
	4.7	Thermal noise in the ground and spacecraft receivers
	4.8	Spacecraft unmodeled motion
	4.9	Numerical noise in orbit removal
	4.10	Aggregate spectrum
	4.11	Summary of noise levels and transfer functions
5	Signal Processing
	5.1	Noise spectrum estimation
	5.2	Sinusoidal and quasiperiodic waves
	5.3	Bursts
	5.4	Stochastic background
	5.5	Classification of data intervals based on transfer functions
	5.6	Frequency-time representations
	5.7	Qualifying/disqualifying candidates
	5.8	Other comments
6	Detector Performance
	6.1	Observations to date
	6.2	Near-future observations
	6.3	Sensitivity to periodic and quasi-periodic waves
	6.4	Burst waves
	6.5	Sensitivity to a stochastic background
7	Improving Doppler Tracking Sensitivity
8	The LISA Low-Frequency Detector
9	Concluding Comments
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Footnotes
	Updates
	Figures
	Tables

List of Tables

Table 1:
Some acronyms and notation used in this paper.

Table 2:
Noise sources and contributions (expressed as Allan deviation [23] at 1000 s integration) in Cassini-era precision Doppler tracking GW observations. This table is adapted from [1, 22]. SEP: sun-earth-probe (solar elongation) angle; SNR: signal-to-noise ratio of the downlink. Models of the spectra of the individual noises are given in [111].

Table 3:
Spacecraft Doppler gravitational-wave observations. MO: Mars Observer; GLL: Galileo; ULS: Ulysses; MGS: Mars Global Surveyor; AMC: Advanced Media Calibration system (tropospheric calibration). A “pass” is a tracking pass over a given DSN antenna, i.e., about 8 hours long.

Table 4:
Required improvement in subsystems to improve overall Doppler sensitivity by a factor of 10 relative to Cassini-era performance.